The Miasma theory
In Tudor England, the understanding of disease was fundamentally different from modern germ theory. One of the most prevalent beliefs was that illness was caused by 'miasma'—foul-smelling, poisonous air that originated from decaying matter, stagnant water, or crowded urban areas. This theory explained why outbreaks of the plague were so common in densely populated cities like London. People responded logically by carrying posies of sweet-smelling flowers, burning aromatic herbs like rosemary, and cleaning the streets to remove the source of the bad air. While they did not understand the role of bacteria or rats, their actions often had the accidental benefit of improving sanitation and encouraging social distancing, showing that even a flawed theory can lead to practical, if unintended, health benefits.
The Four Humours
Health was seen as a state of balance between the four bodily fluids, or 'humours': blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. This medical system, inherited from Ancient Greek and Roman scholars like Galen, suggested that an excess or deficiency of any humour would lead to specific illnesses and changes in temperament. For example, a person with too much blood was thought to be 'sanguine' and prone to fevers, while an excess of black bile led to 'melancholy'. Physicians used this theory to prescribe treatments intended to restore balance, such as bloodletting with leeches, specialized diets, or emetics to induce vomiting. To a modern observer, these treatments seem dangerous, but to a Tudor doctor, they were a perfectly rational response to the evidence they observed in their patients.
Astrology and faith
Beyond physical causes, the Tudors believed that the universe was governed by a complex interplay of divine will and celestial influence. Astrology was a widely accepted science; physicians often consulted star charts to determine the best time for a treatment or surgery, believing that the positions of the planets directly affected the human body. Furthermore, the role of God was central to their worldview. Illness was often interpreted as a divine punishment for sin or a test of faith, leading people to seek spiritual remedies through prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage alongside traditional medicine. This holistic view of health shows that Tudor people did not see a clear distinction between the physical, the spiritual, and the cosmic, and their beliefs formed a consistent and meaningful framework for understanding the world.
Evidence and the historian's task
Historians reconstruct Tudor beliefs by studying medical textbooks, personal diaries, and the records of physicians and apothecaries. However, these sources primarily represent the views of the educated elite. To understand the beliefs of the wider population, historians must look at folklore, ballads, and court cases involving 'cunning folk' or suspected witches, who often provided traditional remedies to the poor. The reliability of these sources varies; medical texts may describe an idealised practice rather than the reality of daily life, and records of witchcraft trials are heavily biased by the prejudices of the accusers. By cross-referencing these diverse sources, historians can build a more complete picture of the Tudor mental world, while acknowledging that many personal beliefs remained unrecorded and are therefore lost to time.